Khyātivāda — Theories of Error

Ontological status: Both the shell (present) and the silver (remembered) are REAL external objects, but their relationship in perception is wrong.

1. Direct contact occurs with the shell, but due to poor light or defect (Dosha), its distinguishing feature (nacreous quality) is missed, and its glitter is noted. 2. The glitter triggers past memory of real silver seen elsewhere (e.g., in a market). 3. Through an extraordinary sensory contact (Jñānalakṣaṇa Sannikarṣa), past memory projects real external silver onto the present shell, creating an 'otherwise' perception.

Example: Rope-Snake / Shell-Silver: Real silver seen in the past is falsely projected onto a real shell present in the room.

Correction happens when closer inspection reveals the true substrate ('This is a shell, not silver'). The false relationship dissolves, but both shell and silver remain real independent entities in the world.

To defend Direct Realism and Substance Dualism: proving that human errors are misattributions of real things, rather than evidence that the external world is subjective or illusory.

Ontological status: The 'silver' exists purely as an internal mental impression (Vāsanā) projected outward. There is no external silver at all.

1. Unconscious karmic memory traces (Vāsanās) in the storehouse consciousness (Ālayavijñāna) ripen. 2. The mind projects an internal form (silver) outward onto sensory experience. 3. Ignorance (Avidyā) causes the mind to mistakenly split unity into subject ('I see') and object ('external silver').

Example: Dream objects: Just as a dream landscape feels external during sleep but is entirely internal mind-stuff, the illusory silver is just projected internal consciousness.

Subsequent cognition realizes: 'There is no external silver; it was merely my own mental projection.'

To support Subjective Idealism (Vijñānavāda): showing that all perceived external objects are ultimately mind-generated projections.

Ontological status: The perceived illusory object (silver/snake) is completely non-existent (Asat) in all three periods of time.

1. Perceptual error occurs when the mind projects an entity that has zero intrinsic existence (Śūnya) onto a substrate that also lacks intrinsic existence. 2. Cognitive distortion experiences an absolute non-entity as real due to fundamental delusion.

Example: Sky-flower, rabbit's horns, or a hallucinated mirage: Perceiving something that has zero underlying existence.

Realizing that the silver was utterly non-existent before, during, and after the illusion.

To demonstrate Śūnyatā (Emptiness): asserting that all phenomena lack inherent, independent existence (Svabhāva).

Ontological status: The illusory silver is temporarily CREATED by Ignorance (Avidyā) as an indescribable reality (Anirvacanīya)—neither strictly real (Sat) nor strictly unreal (Asat).

1. Sensory contact with the shell occurs, but localized ignorance (Tulamāyā) veils the true nature of the shell. 2. Ignorance undergoes transformation (Parināma) and projectively manifests temporary, apparent silver (Prātibhāsika Satya) right at the spot. 3. The observer directly experiences real temporary silver until true knowledge (Jñāna) sublates the ignorance.

Example: The Rope-Snake / Shell-Silver: The snake is not real (it disappears on light), not totally unreal (since it caused genuine physical fear and elevated heart rate), but indescribable.

Sublation (Bādha) occurs with light: 'This was NEVER silver at any time.' The apparent reality dissolves into the underlying empirical or absolute substrate.

To provide a metaphysical model for the Universe (Māyā): explaining how the material world appears real during empirical existence (Vyāvahārika) but is sublated upon non-dual realization of Brahman (Pāramārthika).